Review: Church forests—the green spots of Ethiopian highlands
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Abstract. Mekonen AB, Gebreegziabher BG, Wassie WA, Tsegay BA. 2019. Review: Church forests—the green spots of Ethiopian highlands. Asian J For 3: 45-53. In the central and northern highlands of Ethiopia, native vegetation is almost restricted to church forests which are the only remnant natural forest in the region. The church forests are sacred because the church is believed to be the house of God and everything in its compound is sacred and respected. However, they are under severe threats by both anthropogenic and a few natural disturbances. This review paper summarizes the role of Ethiopian church forests under the authority of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches (EOTC) in biodiversity conservation, source of seed and seedling of native vegetation, ecological importance, ecosystem values and services to the community and to the globe in general. It also emphasizes the main challenges of these forests in terms of human disturbance and natural disturbances. It states the conservation strategies of church forests. We conclude that the EOTCs besides their religious activities played a great role in conserving the forests. However, most church forests have no clear and documented demarcations which expose them to disturbances. The churches are also cultivating fast-growing exotic species to replace native trees for the income of local residents. Finally, we recommend that the head priests should evoke and customize the conservation of sacred groves using religious thought. The government should acknowledge the church for conservation and decide to have a clear boundary for the church forest to minimize further encroachment. Forest genetic resources conservation program (in-situ), Participatory Forest Management (PFM), and rehabilitation activities have to be implemented in addition to the church conservation effort using religious thoughts, religious sanctions, and legal protection for the integrity of these remnant sacred groves. Further studies are recommended to fill the gap of sacred groves in addressing the cause of disturbance and to provide possible solutions for better conservation.
2017-01-01
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Reference
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Agrawal, A. 2001. Common Property Institution and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World development; Elsevier science Ltd; 29(10): 1649-1672.
Bhagwat S. and Rutte C. 2006. Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment; 4: 519–524.
Bhagwat SA. 2009. Ecosystem Services and Sacred Natural Sites: Reconciling Material and Non-material Values in Nature Conservation. Environmental Values; 18(4): 417–427. doi:10.3197/096327109x12532653285731
Bhagwat S. and Palmer M. 2009. Conservation: the world’s religions can help. Nature; 461(7260): 37–37. doi:10.1038/461037b
Bingelli P., Desalegn D., Healey J., Painton M., Smith J., and Zewge T. 2003. Conservation of Ethiopian Sacred Groves. European Tropical Forest Research Network.
Boerma P. 2006. Assessing forest cover change in Eritrea; a historical perspective. Mountain Research and Development; 26: 41–47.
Cardelus, C. L., Lowman, M. D., & Eshete, A. W. 2012. Uniting Church and Science for Conservation. Science, 335(6071): 915–917. doi:10.1126/science.335.6071.915
Cardelús CL, Scull P, Hair J, Baimas-George M, Lowman M D, Wassie A (2013) A preliminary assessment of Ethiopian sacred grove status at the landscape and ecosystem scales. Diversity 5:320-334. https://doi:10.3390/d5020320
Cardelús CL, Scull P, Wassie A, Woods CL, Klepeis P, Kent E, Orlowska I (2017) Shadow conservation and the persistence of sacred church forests in northern Ethiopia. The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation; BIOTROPICA49:726–733.
CFI. 2012. Carbon Farming Initiative Handbook in the content of the Guide to the Carbon Farming Initiative. Published by The NSW Aboriginal Land Council.
CSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia). 2013. Agricultural Sample Survey; Report on Land Utilization, Private Peasant Holdings, Meher Season. Statistical Bulletin; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 4:1-10.
Dudley, N., Nigel, B and Daniel Vallauri .2012. Deadwood Living Forests: The importance of veteran trees and deadwood to biodiversity, WWF European Office, Brussels.
FAO. 2015. The Global Forest Resources Assessment Desk reference; FRA Country Reports; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, Italy.
FAO. 2016. Forestry Contribution to National Economy and Trade in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. By Kilawe, E. and Habimana, D. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Fearnside P.M. 1999. Forests and global warming mitigation in Brazil: opportunities in the Brazilian forest sector for responses to global warming under the clean development mechanism; Biomass Bioenergy 16: 171–189.
Getachew D., Alemu A., Eshfite T., Billa D., and Teshome A. 2010. The Potential of the Tara-Gedam and Kulkual-Ber Forests of Gonder. EIAR, ISBN: 978-99944-53-52-8
IPCC. 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Geneva, Switzerland. pp 104.
Klepeis P, Orlowska A, Kent F, Cardelús L, Scull P, Wassie A, Woods C (2016) Ethiopian church forests: a hybrid model of protection. Hum Ecol 44: 715–730. https://doi:10.1007/s10745-016-9868-z
Laurance W. F., Goosem M., & Laurance S. G. W. 2009. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology and Evolution; 24(12): 659–669. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009
Laurance W. F., Camargo J. L. C., Luizã R. C., Laurance S. G., Pimm S. L., Bruna E. M., Lovejoy, T. E. 2011. The fate of Amazonian forest fragments: A 32-year investigation. Biological Conservation; 144(1):56–67. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.09.021
Liang J., Reynolds T., Wassie A., Collins C., Wubalem A. 2016. Effects of exotic Eucalyptus spp. Plantations on soil properties in and around sacred natural sites in the northern Ethiopian Highlands. AIMS Agric Food; 1(2):175–193. https ://doi.org/10.3934/agrfo od.2016.2.175
Lori R. 2015. How churches are the gatekeepers of Ethiopia’s forests; Africa Geographic Magazine
Rudel T. 2007. Changing agents of deforestation: From state-initiated to enterprise driven processes, 1970–2000. Land use policy; 24(1):35–41. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.11.004
Senbeta F. 2011. Moist Montane Forests of Ethiopia. In: Forest types in Ethiopia: Status, Potential contribution, Challenges and Recommendation. Forum for Environment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 1:103-134.
Terefe D. 2003. Factors Affecting People’s Participation in Participatory Forest Management: The case of IFMP Adaba-Dodola in Bale zone of Oromia Region; MA Thesis Addis Ababa University School of Graduate studies
Teketay D., Lemenih M., Bekele T., Yemshaw Y., Hunde T. 2010. Forest resources and challenges of sustainable forest management and conservation in Ethiopia. In: Bongers, F. & Tennigkeit, T. (eds.). Degraded forests in Eastern Africa: Management and restoration. Earthscan Ltd., London, UK. (1)19?63.
Tilahun A., Terefe H., and Soromessa T. 2015. The Contribution of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church in Forest Management and Its Best Practices to be Scaled up in North Shewa Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 4:123-137. https://doi:10.11648/j.aff.20150403.18
Tilman D. 1999. Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need for sustainable and efficient practices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; 96(11): 5995–6000. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995
Tura T.T. 2011. Estimation of carbon stock in church forests: implications for managing church forest for carbon emission reduction. Addis Ababa University Ethiopia thesis.
Tura TT, Soromess T, Argaw M, Leta S. (2017). Holy Hills Role in Biodiversity Conservation and Mountain Management: Implication of Multi-Purpose Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church in Sustainable Mountain Conservation. J Biodivers Endanger Species 5: 179. doi: 10.4172/2332-2543.1000179
UNFCCC. 2015. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Measurements for Estimation of Carbon Stocks in Afforestation and Reforestation Project Activities under the Clean Development Mechanism: A Field Manual.
UNESCO. 2003. Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage, A Conference organized by the Netherlands National Commission for UNESCO, in Collaboration with the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 22-24 May 2003, World Heritage Papers, 13, Paris
Wassie A. 2002. Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of EOTC in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in SouthGonder, Northern Ethiopia. MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatterberg, Sweden.
Wassie A, and Teketay D. (2006). Soil seed banks in church forests of northern Ethiopia: Implications for the conservation of woody plants. Flora-Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants; 201(1):32–43.
Wassie A. 2007. Ethiopian Church Forests: Opportunities and Challenges for Restoration. PhD thesis, Wageningen Univeristy, PUDOC, Wageningen. The Netherlands.
Wassie A., Sterck F. J., Teketay D., and Bongers F. 2009a. Tree Regeneration in Church Forests of Ethiopia: Effects of Microsites and Management. Biotropica; 41(1): 110–119. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00449.x
Wassie A., Sterck F. J., and Bongers, F. 2010. Species and structural diversity of church forests in a fragmented Ethiopian Highland landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science; 21(5): 938–948. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2010.01202.x
WCMC. 1996. World Conservation Monitoring Centre: Guidelines for the application of the 1994 IUCN Red list Categories to trees.
Winberg E. 2010. Participatory Forest Management in Ethiopia, practices and Experiences. Forestry Volunteer Food and Agriculture Organization Sub Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa.
Yalden D.W. 1983. The extent of high ground in Ethiopia compared to the rest of Africa. SI-NET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. (6):35–39.
Yeshambel M. 2013. The Role of Ethiopian Orthodox Churches and Monasteries in Forest Management Practices in Chilga and Mettema Woredas (Districts), North Gondar Zone; International Journal of Innovative Research & Development; (2):437-446.
Yirdaw E. 2001. Diversity of Natural Regenerated native woody species in forest plantation in the Ethiopian Highlands. New forests 22(3): 159-177.
Yitebitu M., Eshetu, Z. and N. Sisay. 2010. Ethiopian Forest Resources: Current status and future management options in view of access to carbon finances. Literature review prepared for the Ethiopian Climate Research and Networking and the United Nations Development programme (UNDP), Addis Ababa.
Aerts R., Van Overtveld K., November E., Wassie A., Abiyu A., Demissew S., Daye D. D.et al. 2016. Conservation of the Ethiopian Church Forests: Threats, Opportunities and Implications for their Management. Science of the Total Environment; 551(1):404–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.034.
Agrawal, A. 2001. Common Property Institution and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World development; Elsevier science Ltd; 29(10): 1649-1672.
Bhagwat S. and Rutte C. 2006. Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment; 4: 519–524.
Bhagwat SA. 2009. Ecosystem Services and Sacred Natural Sites: Reconciling Material and Non-material Values in Nature Conservation. Environmental Values; 18(4): 417–427. doi:10.3197/096327109x12532653285731
Bhagwat S. and Palmer M. 2009. Conservation: the world’s religions can help. Nature; 461(7260): 37–37. doi:10.1038/461037b
Bingelli P., Desalegn D., Healey J., Painton M., Smith J., and Zewge T. 2003. Conservation of Ethiopian Sacred Groves. European Tropical Forest Research Network.
Boerma P. 2006. Assessing forest cover change in Eritrea; a historical perspective. Mountain Research and Development; 26: 41–47.
Cardelus, C. L., Lowman, M. D., & Eshete, A. W. 2012. Uniting Church and Science for Conservation. Science, 335(6071): 915–917. doi:10.1126/science.335.6071.915
Cardelús CL, Scull P, Hair J, Baimas-George M, Lowman M D, Wassie A (2013) A preliminary assessment of Ethiopian sacred grove status at the landscape and ecosystem scales. Diversity 5:320-334. https://doi:10.3390/d5020320
Cardelús CL, Scull P, Wassie A, Woods CL, Klepeis P, Kent E, Orlowska I (2017) Shadow conservation and the persistence of sacred church forests in northern Ethiopia. The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation; BIOTROPICA49:726–733.
CFI. 2012. Carbon Farming Initiative Handbook in the content of the Guide to the Carbon Farming Initiative. Published by The NSW Aboriginal Land Council.
CSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia). 2013. Agricultural Sample Survey; Report on Land Utilization, Private Peasant Holdings, Meher Season. Statistical Bulletin; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 4:1-10.
Dudley, N., Nigel, B and Daniel Vallauri .2012. Deadwood Living Forests: The importance of veteran trees and deadwood to biodiversity, WWF European Office, Brussels.
FAO. 2015. The Global Forest Resources Assessment Desk reference; FRA Country Reports; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, Italy.
FAO. 2016. Forestry Contribution to National Economy and Trade in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. By Kilawe, E. and Habimana, D. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Fearnside P.M. 1999. Forests and global warming mitigation in Brazil: opportunities in the Brazilian forest sector for responses to global warming under the clean development mechanism; Biomass Bioenergy 16: 171–189.
Getachew D., Alemu A., Eshfite T., Billa D., and Teshome A. 2010. The Potential of the Tara-Gedam and Kulkual-Ber Forests of Gonder. EIAR, ISBN: 978-99944-53-52-8
IPCC. 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Geneva, Switzerland. pp 104.
Klepeis P, Orlowska A, Kent F, Cardelús L, Scull P, Wassie A, Woods C (2016) Ethiopian church forests: a hybrid model of protection. Hum Ecol 44: 715–730. https://doi:10.1007/s10745-016-9868-z
Laurance W. F., Goosem M., & Laurance S. G. W. 2009. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology and Evolution; 24(12): 659–669. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009
Laurance W. F., Camargo J. L. C., Luizã R. C., Laurance S. G., Pimm S. L., Bruna E. M., Lovejoy, T. E. 2011. The fate of Amazonian forest fragments: A 32-year investigation. Biological Conservation; 144(1):56–67. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.09.021
Liang J., Reynolds T., Wassie A., Collins C., Wubalem A. 2016. Effects of exotic Eucalyptus spp. Plantations on soil properties in and around sacred natural sites in the northern Ethiopian Highlands. AIMS Agric Food; 1(2):175–193. https ://doi.org/10.3934/agrfo od.2016.2.175
Lori R. 2015. How churches are the gatekeepers of Ethiopia’s forests; Africa Geographic Magazine
Rudel T. 2007. Changing agents of deforestation: From state-initiated to enterprise driven processes, 1970–2000. Land use policy; 24(1):35–41. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.11.004
Senbeta F. 2011. Moist Montane Forests of Ethiopia. In: Forest types in Ethiopia: Status, Potential contribution, Challenges and Recommendation. Forum for Environment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 1:103-134.
Terefe D. 2003. Factors Affecting People’s Participation in Participatory Forest Management: The case of IFMP Adaba-Dodola in Bale zone of Oromia Region; MA Thesis Addis Ababa University School of Graduate studies
Teketay D., Lemenih M., Bekele T., Yemshaw Y., Hunde T. 2010. Forest resources and challenges of sustainable forest management and conservation in Ethiopia. In: Bongers, F. & Tennigkeit, T. (eds.). Degraded forests in Eastern Africa: Management and restoration. Earthscan Ltd., London, UK. (1)19?63.
Tilahun A., Terefe H., and Soromessa T. 2015. The Contribution of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church in Forest Management and Its Best Practices to be Scaled up in North Shewa Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 4:123-137. https://doi:10.11648/j.aff.20150403.18
Tilman D. 1999. Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need for sustainable and efficient practices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; 96(11): 5995–6000. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995
Tura T.T. 2011. Estimation of carbon stock in church forests: implications for managing church forest for carbon emission reduction. Addis Ababa University Ethiopia thesis.
Tura TT, Soromess T, Argaw M, Leta S. (2017). Holy Hills Role in Biodiversity Conservation and Mountain Management: Implication of Multi-Purpose Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church in Sustainable Mountain Conservation. J Biodivers Endanger Species 5: 179. doi: 10.4172/2332-2543.1000179
UNFCCC. 2015. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Measurements for Estimation of Carbon Stocks in Afforestation and Reforestation Project Activities under the Clean Development Mechanism: A Field Manual.
UNESCO. 2003. Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage, A Conference organized by the Netherlands National Commission for UNESCO, in Collaboration with the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 22-24 May 2003, World Heritage Papers, 13, Paris
Wassie A. 2002. Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of EOTC in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in SouthGonder, Northern Ethiopia. MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatterberg, Sweden.
Wassie A, and Teketay D. (2006). Soil seed banks in church forests of northern Ethiopia: Implications for the conservation of woody plants. Flora-Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants; 201(1):32–43.
Wassie A. 2007. Ethiopian Church Forests: Opportunities and Challenges for Restoration. PhD thesis, Wageningen Univeristy, PUDOC, Wageningen. The Netherlands.
Wassie A., Sterck F. J., Teketay D., and Bongers F. 2009a. Tree Regeneration in Church Forests of Ethiopia: Effects of Microsites and Management. Biotropica; 41(1): 110–119. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00449.x
Wassie A., Sterck F. J., and Bongers, F. 2010. Species and structural diversity of church forests in a fragmented Ethiopian Highland landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science; 21(5): 938–948. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2010.01202.x
WCMC. 1996. World Conservation Monitoring Centre: Guidelines for the application of the 1994 IUCN Red list Categories to trees.
Winberg E. 2010. Participatory Forest Management in Ethiopia, practices and Experiences. Forestry Volunteer Food and Agriculture Organization Sub Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa.
Yalden D.W. 1983. The extent of high ground in Ethiopia compared to the rest of Africa. SI-NET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. (6):35–39.
Yeshambel M. 2013. The Role of Ethiopian Orthodox Churches and Monasteries in Forest Management Practices in Chilga and Mettema Woredas (Districts), North Gondar Zone; International Journal of Innovative Research & Development; (2):437-446.
Yirdaw E. 2001. Diversity of Natural Regenerated native woody species in forest plantation in the Ethiopian Highlands. New forests 22(3): 159-177.
Yitebitu M., Eshetu, Z. and N. Sisay. 2010. Ethiopian Forest Resources: Current status and future management options in view of access to carbon finances. Literature review prepared for the Ethiopian Climate Research and Networking and the United Nations Development programme (UNDP), Addis Ababa.