Bioactive compounds of ethanol extract from agarwood leaves (Aquilaria malaccensis) and antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi growing on the skin
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Abstract. Batubara R, Wirjosentono B, Siregar AH, Harahap U, Tamrin. 2021. Bioactive compounds of ethanol extract from agarwood leaves (Aquilaria malaccensis) and antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi growing on the skin. Biodiversitas 22: 2884-2890. Agarwood plants (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.) provide numerous benefits and have been cultivated by the people. The leaves containing various compounds, such as flavonoids, glycosides, triterpenoids and tannins with antibacterial and antifungal activities, were reported to be potential for flesh wound healing. Therefore, research on these activities against microorganisms that cause infection in wounds was carried out in vitro. This research aims to determine the antibacterial and antifungal activities of agarwood leaves ethanol extract against three bacteria species (Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Propionibacterium acnes) and two fungi species (Candida albicans and Trichophyton sp.) that commonly cause skin infection. The results of this research show that the concentration of ethanol extract of agarwood leaves affected the bacterial and fungal growth inhibition zone’s diameter. The best inhibitory potential occurred at 5% concentration in activity against bacteria and fungi. The extract’s active compounds contributing to the antimicrobial activity were the flavonoids and tannins. Furthermore, GC-MS identification shows that the ethanol extract from agarwood leaves contained Disulfide, dioctyl; 6,7-Dimethylquinoxaline; (E)-1,3-Di-m-tolylallyl ethyl Carbonate; 5-(2-Methoxyphenyl)-1,2-dihydropyrazol-3-one; 9-[(tert-Butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]benzo[3,4]cyclod ec-3-ene-1,5-diyne; Neophytadiene, 2-Hexadecen-1-ol, 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-, [R-[R*,R*-(E)]]-; Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester and a-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-aphenoxy-a-phenyl acetonitrile
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References
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Al-Enazi NM, Awaad AS, Al-Othman MR, Al-Anazi NK, Alqasaumi SI. 2018. Isolation identification and anti-candidal activity of filamentous fungi from Saudi Arabia soil. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 26: 253–257.
Awaad AS, Alothman MR, Zai YM, Zain GM, Alqasaumi SI, Hassa DA. 2017. Comparative nutritional value and antimicrobial activities between three Euphorbia species growing in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 25: 1226–1230.
Babu, Johnson M, Raja DP, Arockiaraj AA, Vinnarasi J. 2014. Chemical Constituents And Their Biological Activity Of Ulva Lactuca Linn. Int.J.Pharm Drug Anal Vol: 2 Issue:7 Page:595-600.
Batubara R, Surjanto, Hanum TI, Handika A, Afandi O. 2020. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of agarwood leaves (Aquilaria malaccensis) from two sites in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 21: 1588–1596.
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Dewi FK. 2010. Antibacterial activity of noni fruit(Morinda citrifolia Linnaeus) ethanol extract against fresh meat spoilage bacteria. [Thesis]. Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta. [Indonesian]
Diyantika D, Mufida DC, Misnawi, 2017. The morphological changes of Staphylococcus aureuscaused by ethanol extracts of Cocoa Beans (Theobama cacao) through In Vitro. Journal of Agromedicine and Medical Sciences. 1 (1), 25–33.
El-Gaby MSA, Ismail MMF, Ammar YA, Zahran MA, ShmeissNAMM. 2002. Synthesis of Novel Quinoxaline Carboxylic Acid Derivatives for Antimicrobial Investigation. Indian Journal of Chemistry. Vol. 41B, Juli 2002, pp 1480-1485.
Gobel, B. R., Zaraswati, D., As`adi, A. 2008. General Microbiology in Practice. Makassar, Universitas Hasanuddin.
Guvensen NC, Keskin D. 2016. Chemical Content and Antimicrobial Properties of Three Diffrent Extracts of Mentha pulegium Leaves From Mugla Regium, Turkey. Journal Of Environmental Biology. Vol 37 : 1341-1346.
Farizal J, Dewa EARS, 2017. Identification of Candida albicanin saliva of woman with diabetes melitus. Jurnal Teknologi Laboratorium. 6 (2), 67–74.
Fauzi RN, Cahaya, Hidayaturrahmah. 2017. The effect of agarwood (Aquilaria Microcarpa Baill.) leaves ethanol extract addition to bleeding time of histarin-induced white male wistar rats. Jurnal Ilmiah Ibnu Sina. 2 (2), 169–175.
Fitri NL, Susetyarini, RE, Waluyo L. 2016. The effect of ciplukan (Physalis angulata L.) fruit extract on SGPT and SGOT levels against white male rats (Mus musculus) hyperglycemia induced by alloxan as biology learning resources. Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi Indonesia. 2 (2), 180–187.
Farnsworth NR.1966. Biological and phytochemical screening of plants. J.Pharm.Sci. 55 (3): 225–276. doi:10.1002/jps.260055.
Gagola C. 2004. Antioxidant activity of chalk-white and yellowish flesh cassava (Manihot esculenta) cortex phenolic extract collected fromMelonguane city, Talaud Archipelago Regency. Jurnal Ilmiah Farmasi Pharmacon. 3 (2), 2302–2493.
Higazy A, Hashem M, ElShafei A, Shaker N, Hady MA, 2010. Development of antimicrobial jute fabrics via in situ formation of cellulose–tannic acid–metal ion complex. Carbohydrate Polymers. 79: 890–897.
Ismarani. 2012. The potentials of tannin for supporting environmentally friendly production. CEFARS: Jurnal Agribisnis danPengembangan Wilayah. 3 (2), 46–55.
Jansen YR. 2017. Antibacterial activity of gaharu leaves extract (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.)against Pseudomonas aeruginosaandStaphylococcus aureus. Jurnal. Universitas Atmajaya, Yogyakarta. [Indonesian]
Joondan N, Inassee MAT, Bhowon MG, Laulloo SJ. 2020. Synthesis and Biological Properties of a Series of Aryl Alkyl Disulfide Derivatives. Heliyon 6 (2020) e05368.
Kahraman C, Topcu G, Bedir E, Tatli II, Ekizoglu M, Akdemir ZS. 2019. Phytochemical screening and evaluation of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Ferula caspica M. Bieb. extracts. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 27, 525–531.
Khasanah I, Sarwiyono, Surjowardojo P. 2014. Ethanol extract of muntingia(Muntingia calabura L.) leaves as antibacterial againstStreptococcus agalactiae phatogens causing subclinical mastitis in dairy herds. Research Report . Faculty of Animal Science. Universitas Brawijaya, Malang. [Indonesian]
Liana Y. 2017. Antibacterial activity assessment of agarwood plant (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.) leaves ethanol extract against Staphylococcus aureus. National Seminar and Workshop Proceedings of Nursery, pp. 96–102. [Indonesian]
Listiyawati IT, Suyoso S, Rahmadewi. 2017. Profile of fungal and bacterial infections in inguinal erythrosquamous dermatoses. Periodical of Dermatology and Venereology. 29 (3), 204–211.
Mardiah S. 2008. Antibacterial effectivity of garlic (Allium sativum L.) juice against Staphylococcus aureusgrowth. Medicra (Journal of Medical Laboratory Science/Technology). 1 (2), 44–53.
Miller LG, Eells SJ, Taylor AR, David MZ, Ortiz N, Zychowski D, Kumar N, Cruz D, Boyle-Vavra S, Daum RS. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus colonization among household contacts of patients with skin infections: risk factors, strain discordance, and complex ecology. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 54 (11), 1523–1558.
Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia. 2000. Parameter Standar Umum Tumbuhan Obat. MoH RI, Jakarta, pp.5–11. [Indonesian]
Molero GRD, Olejas FN, Garcia L, Monteoliva J, Pla C, Gil MS, Perez C, Nombela. 1998. Candida albicans: genetics, dimorphisme phatogenicity. International Microbiology. 1,95–106.
Mothana RA, Khaled JM, El-Gamal AA, Noman OM, Kumar A, Alajmi MF, Al-Rehaily AJ, Al-Said MS. 2019. Comparative evaluation of cytotoxic, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the crude extracts of three Plectranthus species grown in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 27, 162–170.
Obasi LN, Kaior GU, Rhyman L, Ibrahim, Alswaidan A, Hoong-Kun Fun, Ramasami P. 2016. Synthesis, characterization, antimicrobial screening and computational studies of 4- [3-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-allylideneamino]-1,5-dimethyl-2-phenyl-1,2-dihydro-pyrazol-3- one. Journal of Molecular Structure. Volume 1120 : 180-186.
Palic RG, Stojanovic, Alagic S, Nikolic M, Lepojevic Z. 2002. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of theessential oil and CO2 extracts of the oriental tobacco, Prilep. Flavour And Fragrance Journal. 17: 323–326.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2016.05.037.
Peng S, Zhao M. 2009. Pharmaceutical bioassay: Methods and applications. John Wiley& Sons, New Jersey.
Pranakhon R, Pannangpetch P, Aromdee C. 2011.Antihyperglycemic activity of agarwood leaf extracts in STZ-induced diabetic rats and glucose uptake enhancement activity in rat adipocytes. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 33, 405–410.
Pelczar MJ, Chan ECS. 2008. Dasar-dasar Mikrobiologi 2. UI Press, Jakarta.
Qomar MS, Budiyanto MAK, Sukarsono, Wahyuni S, Husamah. 2018. Effectivity of cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii [Ness.] BI) leaves extract at various concentration for growth inhibitory zone diameter ofStaphylococcus epidermidis bacteria. Jurnal Biota. 4 (1), 12–18.
Radji M. 2011. Buku Ajar Mikrobiologi Panduan Mahasiswa Farmasi dan Kedokteran. EGC, Jakarta.
Salawu OA, Aliyu M, Tijani AY. 2008. Haematological studies on the ethanolic stem bark extract of Pterocarpus erinaceusPoir. (fabaceae). African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (9), 1212–1215.
Sari R, Muhani M, Fajriaty I. 2017. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic leaves extract of agarwood (Aquilaria microcarpa Baill.) against Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis. Pharm. Sci. Res. 4 (3), 143–154.
Sintowati R, Ambarwati, Kusumawati Y. 2008. Antifungal effectivity of neem (Azadirachta indica)seed againstTrichophyton mentagrophytes. Jurnal Kesehatan.I (2), 97–102.
Surjanto, Batubara, R., Hanum, T. I., Pulungan, W., 2019. Phytochemical and antioxidant activity of gaharu leaf tea (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk) as raw material of tea from middle Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatera Province. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 260, 012101. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/260/1/012101.
Swamy MK, Arumugam G, Kaur R, Ghasemzadeh A, Yusoff MM, Sinniah UR. 2017. GC-MS Based Metabolite Profiling, Antioxidant andAntimicrobial Properties of Different Solvent Extracts ofMalaysian Plectranthus amboinicus Leaves. HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2017, Article ID 1517683, 10 pages (1-10). https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1517683
Tambayong, J. 2000. Patofisiologi Untuk Keperawatan. EGC, Jakarta.
Venkata RB, Samuel LA, Pardha SM, Narashimha RB, Naga VKA, Sudhakar M, Radhakrishnan TM. 2012. Antibacterial, Antioxidant Activity And Gc-Ms Analysis Of Eupatorium odoratum. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. Vol 5, Suppl 2, 2012, 99-106.
Wahid AR, Ittiqo DH. 2019. Inhibition activity of agarwood(Aquilaria malea L.)leaves extract as antibacterial agent against Staphylococcus aureusbacteria. Jurnal Insan Farmasi Indonesia, 2(1), 34–43.
Yin Y, Jiao L, Dong M, Jiang X, Zhang S. 2016. Wood resources, identification, and utilization of agarwood in China, in: Mohamed, R., (Ed.), Agarwood. Springer, Singapore, pp. 21–38.
Zhou M, Wang H, Suolangjiba, Kou J, Yu B. 2008. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. leaves extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 11
Adam AZ, Lee SY, Mohamed R. 2017. Pharmacological properties of agarwood tea derived from Aquilaria (Thymelaeaceae) leaves: an emerging contemporary herbal drink. J. Herb. Med. 10, 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2017.06.002.
Aida AN, Enny S, Misnawi. 2016. In vitro test of the effect of cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao) ethanolic extract as an antibacterial against Propionibacterium acnes. e-Jurnal Pustaka Kesehatan. 4(1), 127–131.
Al-Enazi NM, Awaad AS, Al-Othman MR, Al-Anazi NK, Alqasaumi SI. 2018. Isolation identification and anti-candidal activity of filamentous fungi from Saudi Arabia soil. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 26: 253–257.
Awaad AS, Alothman MR, Zai YM, Zain GM, Alqasaumi SI, Hassa DA. 2017. Comparative nutritional value and antimicrobial activities between three Euphorbia species growing in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 25: 1226–1230.
Babu, Johnson M, Raja DP, Arockiaraj AA, Vinnarasi J. 2014. Chemical Constituents And Their Biological Activity Of Ulva Lactuca Linn. Int.J.Pharm Drug Anal Vol: 2 Issue:7 Page:595-600.
Batubara R, Surjanto, Hanum TI, Handika A, Afandi O. 2020. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of agarwood leaves (Aquilaria malaccensis) from two sites in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 21: 1588–1596.
Brzuszkiewicz E, Weiner J, Wollherr A, Thürmer A, Hüpeden J, Lomholt HB, Kilian M, Gottschalk G, Daniel R, Mollenkopf H, Meyer TF, Brüggemann H, 2011. Comparative genomics and transcriptomics of Propionibacterium acnes. PLoS One. 6(6), e21581. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021581.
Chandrasekaran M, Senthilkumar A, Venkatesalu V. 2011. Antibacterial and antifungal efficacy of fatty acid methyl esters from leaves of Sesuvium portulacastrum L. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 15(7):775-780.
Dewi FK. 2010. Antibacterial activity of noni fruit(Morinda citrifolia Linnaeus) ethanol extract against fresh meat spoilage bacteria. [Thesis]. Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta. [Indonesian]
Diyantika D, Mufida DC, Misnawi, 2017. The morphological changes of Staphylococcus aureuscaused by ethanol extracts of Cocoa Beans (Theobama cacao) through In Vitro. Journal of Agromedicine and Medical Sciences. 1 (1), 25–33.
El-Gaby MSA, Ismail MMF, Ammar YA, Zahran MA, ShmeissNAMM. 2002. Synthesis of Novel Quinoxaline Carboxylic Acid Derivatives for Antimicrobial Investigation. Indian Journal of Chemistry. Vol. 41B, Juli 2002, pp 1480-1485.
Gobel, B. R., Zaraswati, D., As`adi, A. 2008. General Microbiology in Practice. Makassar, Universitas Hasanuddin.
Guvensen NC, Keskin D. 2016. Chemical Content and Antimicrobial Properties of Three Diffrent Extracts of Mentha pulegium Leaves From Mugla Regium, Turkey. Journal Of Environmental Biology. Vol 37 : 1341-1346.
Farizal J, Dewa EARS, 2017. Identification of Candida albicanin saliva of woman with diabetes melitus. Jurnal Teknologi Laboratorium. 6 (2), 67–74.
Fauzi RN, Cahaya, Hidayaturrahmah. 2017. The effect of agarwood (Aquilaria Microcarpa Baill.) leaves ethanol extract addition to bleeding time of histarin-induced white male wistar rats. Jurnal Ilmiah Ibnu Sina. 2 (2), 169–175.
Fitri NL, Susetyarini, RE, Waluyo L. 2016. The effect of ciplukan (Physalis angulata L.) fruit extract on SGPT and SGOT levels against white male rats (Mus musculus) hyperglycemia induced by alloxan as biology learning resources. Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi Indonesia. 2 (2), 180–187.
Farnsworth NR.1966. Biological and phytochemical screening of plants. J.Pharm.Sci. 55 (3): 225–276. doi:10.1002/jps.260055.
Gagola C. 2004. Antioxidant activity of chalk-white and yellowish flesh cassava (Manihot esculenta) cortex phenolic extract collected fromMelonguane city, Talaud Archipelago Regency. Jurnal Ilmiah Farmasi Pharmacon. 3 (2), 2302–2493.
Higazy A, Hashem M, ElShafei A, Shaker N, Hady MA, 2010. Development of antimicrobial jute fabrics via in situ formation of cellulose–tannic acid–metal ion complex. Carbohydrate Polymers. 79: 890–897.
Ismarani. 2012. The potentials of tannin for supporting environmentally friendly production. CEFARS: Jurnal Agribisnis danPengembangan Wilayah. 3 (2), 46–55.
Jansen YR. 2017. Antibacterial activity of gaharu leaves extract (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.)against Pseudomonas aeruginosaandStaphylococcus aureus. Jurnal. Universitas Atmajaya, Yogyakarta. [Indonesian]
Joondan N, Inassee MAT, Bhowon MG, Laulloo SJ. 2020. Synthesis and Biological Properties of a Series of Aryl Alkyl Disulfide Derivatives. Heliyon 6 (2020) e05368.
Kahraman C, Topcu G, Bedir E, Tatli II, Ekizoglu M, Akdemir ZS. 2019. Phytochemical screening and evaluation of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Ferula caspica M. Bieb. extracts. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 27, 525–531.
Khasanah I, Sarwiyono, Surjowardojo P. 2014. Ethanol extract of muntingia(Muntingia calabura L.) leaves as antibacterial againstStreptococcus agalactiae phatogens causing subclinical mastitis in dairy herds. Research Report . Faculty of Animal Science. Universitas Brawijaya, Malang. [Indonesian]
Liana Y. 2017. Antibacterial activity assessment of agarwood plant (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.) leaves ethanol extract against Staphylococcus aureus. National Seminar and Workshop Proceedings of Nursery, pp. 96–102. [Indonesian]
Listiyawati IT, Suyoso S, Rahmadewi. 2017. Profile of fungal and bacterial infections in inguinal erythrosquamous dermatoses. Periodical of Dermatology and Venereology. 29 (3), 204–211.
Mardiah S. 2008. Antibacterial effectivity of garlic (Allium sativum L.) juice against Staphylococcus aureusgrowth. Medicra (Journal of Medical Laboratory Science/Technology). 1 (2), 44–53.
Miller LG, Eells SJ, Taylor AR, David MZ, Ortiz N, Zychowski D, Kumar N, Cruz D, Boyle-Vavra S, Daum RS. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus colonization among household contacts of patients with skin infections: risk factors, strain discordance, and complex ecology. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 54 (11), 1523–1558.
Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia. 2000. Parameter Standar Umum Tumbuhan Obat. MoH RI, Jakarta, pp.5–11. [Indonesian]
Molero GRD, Olejas FN, Garcia L, Monteoliva J, Pla C, Gil MS, Perez C, Nombela. 1998. Candida albicans: genetics, dimorphisme phatogenicity. International Microbiology. 1,95–106.
Mothana RA, Khaled JM, El-Gamal AA, Noman OM, Kumar A, Alajmi MF, Al-Rehaily AJ, Al-Said MS. 2019. Comparative evaluation of cytotoxic, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the crude extracts of three Plectranthus species grown in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 27, 162–170.
Obasi LN, Kaior GU, Rhyman L, Ibrahim, Alswaidan A, Hoong-Kun Fun, Ramasami P. 2016. Synthesis, characterization, antimicrobial screening and computational studies of 4- [3-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-allylideneamino]-1,5-dimethyl-2-phenyl-1,2-dihydro-pyrazol-3- one. Journal of Molecular Structure. Volume 1120 : 180-186.
Palic RG, Stojanovic, Alagic S, Nikolic M, Lepojevic Z. 2002. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of theessential oil and CO2 extracts of the oriental tobacco, Prilep. Flavour And Fragrance Journal. 17: 323–326.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2016.05.037.
Peng S, Zhao M. 2009. Pharmaceutical bioassay: Methods and applications. John Wiley& Sons, New Jersey.
Pranakhon R, Pannangpetch P, Aromdee C. 2011.Antihyperglycemic activity of agarwood leaf extracts in STZ-induced diabetic rats and glucose uptake enhancement activity in rat adipocytes. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 33, 405–410.
Pelczar MJ, Chan ECS. 2008. Dasar-dasar Mikrobiologi 2. UI Press, Jakarta.
Qomar MS, Budiyanto MAK, Sukarsono, Wahyuni S, Husamah. 2018. Effectivity of cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii [Ness.] BI) leaves extract at various concentration for growth inhibitory zone diameter ofStaphylococcus epidermidis bacteria. Jurnal Biota. 4 (1), 12–18.
Radji M. 2011. Buku Ajar Mikrobiologi Panduan Mahasiswa Farmasi dan Kedokteran. EGC, Jakarta.
Salawu OA, Aliyu M, Tijani AY. 2008. Haematological studies on the ethanolic stem bark extract of Pterocarpus erinaceusPoir. (fabaceae). African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (9), 1212–1215.
Sari R, Muhani M, Fajriaty I. 2017. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic leaves extract of agarwood (Aquilaria microcarpa Baill.) against Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis. Pharm. Sci. Res. 4 (3), 143–154.
Sintowati R, Ambarwati, Kusumawati Y. 2008. Antifungal effectivity of neem (Azadirachta indica)seed againstTrichophyton mentagrophytes. Jurnal Kesehatan.I (2), 97–102.
Surjanto, Batubara, R., Hanum, T. I., Pulungan, W., 2019. Phytochemical and antioxidant activity of gaharu leaf tea (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk) as raw material of tea from middle Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatera Province. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 260, 012101. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/260/1/012101.
Swamy MK, Arumugam G, Kaur R, Ghasemzadeh A, Yusoff MM, Sinniah UR. 2017. GC-MS Based Metabolite Profiling, Antioxidant andAntimicrobial Properties of Different Solvent Extracts ofMalaysian Plectranthus amboinicus Leaves. HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2017, Article ID 1517683, 10 pages (1-10). https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1517683
Tambayong, J. 2000. Patofisiologi Untuk Keperawatan. EGC, Jakarta.
Venkata RB, Samuel LA, Pardha SM, Narashimha RB, Naga VKA, Sudhakar M, Radhakrishnan TM. 2012. Antibacterial, Antioxidant Activity And Gc-Ms Analysis Of Eupatorium odoratum. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. Vol 5, Suppl 2, 2012, 99-106.
Wahid AR, Ittiqo DH. 2019. Inhibition activity of agarwood(Aquilaria malea L.)leaves extract as antibacterial agent against Staphylococcus aureusbacteria. Jurnal Insan Farmasi Indonesia, 2(1), 34–43.
Yin Y, Jiao L, Dong M, Jiang X, Zhang S. 2016. Wood resources, identification, and utilization of agarwood in China, in: Mohamed, R., (Ed.), Agarwood. Springer, Singapore, pp. 21–38.
Zhou M, Wang H, Suolangjiba, Kou J, Yu B. 2008. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. leaves extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 11
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