Ethnobotanical survey and phytochemical screening of anti-snakebite plants used in Bissok District of Gabon
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Issue
Section
Articles
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Abstract
Abstract. Mengome, Mewono L, Mboma R, Engohang-Ndong J, Angone SA. 2021. Ethnobotanical survey and phytochemical screening of anti-snakebite plants used in Bissok District of Gabon. Biodiversitas 22: 3264-3275. Snakebites remain a major health issue in tropical and subtropical regions in the world. The limited access of antivenom sera in remote areas of many countries forces populations to rely on plant-based remedies to manage snakebite-induced injury. In this study, we conducted an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the management of snakebites in the district of Bissok (Northern Gabon). After collecting and verifying the authenticity of the plants, we further performed their phytochemical analysis. The procedure used in this study involved a structured questionnaire and direct interviews of local populations. Overall, data collected on-site included local names, the part of the plant used, the preparation, and the route of administration. The presence of some phytochemical compounds was determined according to standard methods. Overall, a total of 29 species of plants belonging to 20 different families were reported to be used to treat snakebites. The plants used were herbs (44.80%), trees (24.10%), shrubs (20.70%), liana (10.30%), and rhizomes (6.90%). They were mainly used as poultice or crush, and to a lesser extent as decoction and maceration. Regarding the route of administration, interviewees reported mainly external use on the site of the bite. Concerning the chemical composition, we found that the antivenom plants were rich in chemical compounds known to have antivenom, antipyretic and antimicrobial properties, e.g. alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, steroids, coumarins, phenols, tannins gallic Our results open avenues to develop venom enzyme inhibitory assays.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
References
Adzu B, Abubakar MS, Izebe KS, Akumka DD & Gamaniel KS. 2005. Effect of Annona senegalensis root bark extracts on Naja nigricotlis nigricotlis venom in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 96: 507-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.09.055.
Agbor GA, Vinson JA, Sortino J, Johnson R. 2012. Antioxidant and anti-atherogenic activities of three Piper species on atherogenic diet fed hamsters. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 64: 387-391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etp.2010.10.003.
Agyare C, Asase A, Lechtenberg M, Niehues M, Deters A & Hensel A. 2009. An ethnopharmacological survey and in vitro confirmation of ethnopharmacological use of medicinal plants used for wound healing in Bosomtwi-Atwima-Kwanwoma area, Ghana. J. Ethnopharmacol. 125: 393-403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.07.024.
Akendengué B, Louis AM. 1994. Medicinal plants used by the Masango people in Gabon. J. Ethnopharmacol. 41: 193-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(94)90032-9.
Alcaraz MJ, Hoult JRS. 1985. Effect of hypolactin-8 glucoside and related flavonoids on Soyabean lipoxygenase and snake venom phospholipase A2. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 278: 4-12. PMID: 3938206.
Ambikabothy J, Ibrahim H, Ambu S, Chakravarthi S, Khalijah AK, Vejayan J. 2011. Efficacy evaluations of Mimosa pudica tannin isolate (MPT) for its anti-ophidian properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 137: 257-262.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.013.
Bajin ba Ndob, I., Mengome, LE, Bourobou Bourobou HP, Bivigou F. 2016. Phytochemical screening of six Gabonese medicinal plants used in the treatment of helminthiasis. ScienceLib Editions Mersenne. 6: 1-15. N ° 140905 ISSN 2111-4706.
Barua CC, Roy JD, Buragohain B, Barua AG, Borah P, Lahkar M. 2011. Analgesic and anti-nociceptive activity of hydroethanolic extract of Drymaria cordata willd. IndianJ.Pharmacol.43:121-125. https://www.ijponline.com/text.asp?2011/43/2/121/77337.
Biswas A, Bhowmick S, Guha A, & Grewal D. 2013. Consumer Evaluations of Sale Prices: Role of the Subtraction. J. Marketing. 77: 49 -66. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.12.0052.
Borah A, Paw M, Gogoi R, Loying R, Sarma N & Munda S. 2019. Chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and in-vitro cytotoxic efficacy of essential oil of Curcuma caesia Roxb . leaves : An endangered medicinal plant of North East India. Industrial Crops & Products. 129, 448-454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.035.
Calixto JB, Beirith, A, Ferreira J, Santos AR, Cechinel FV, Yunes RA. 2000. Naturally occurring antinociceptive substances from plants. Phytother. Res. 14: 401-418. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1573(200009)14:6<401::AID-PTR762>3.0.CO;2-H.
Chandra NS, Ponnappa JN, Sadashiva KC, Priya CT, Nanda BS, Gowda BL, Vishwanath TV, Rangappa BS. 2007. Chemistry and structural evaluation of different phospholipase A2 inhibitors in arachidonic acid pathway mediated inflammation and snake venom toxicity. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 7: 787-800. DOI : 10.2174/156802607780487678.
Chen CM, Wu KG, Chen CJ, Wang CM. 2011. Bacterial infection in association with snakebite: a 10-year experience in a northern Taiwan medical center. J. Microbiol Immunol. Infect. 44: 456-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2011.04.011.
Chippaux JP. 2011. Estimate of the burden of snakebites in sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-analytic approach. Toxicon. 57: 586-599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.12.022.
Chippaux JP, Vieillefosse S, Sall O, Mafouta R, Diallo A. 2005. Evaluation de l’incidence des morsures de serpent au Sénégal. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 98: 277-282. Corpus ID: 83276565.
Cowan MM. 1999. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12: 564-582. PMCID:PMC88925, PMID: 10515903.
da Silva Arrigo J, Balen E, Júnior UL, da Silva Mota J, Iwamoto RD, Barison A, Sugizaki MM, Kassuya CAL. 2016. Anti-nociceptive, anti-hyperalgesic and anti- arthritic activity of amides and extract obtained from Piper amalago in rodents. J. Ethnopharmacol. 179: 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.12.046.
da Silva LMR, de Figueiredo EAT, Ricardo NMPS, Vieira IGP, de Figueiredo RW, Brasil IM, et al. 2014. Quantification of bioactive compounds in pulps and by-products of tropical fruits from Brazil. Food Chem. 143: 398-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.08.001.
Dey A, De JN. 2012. Traditional use of plants against snakebite in Indian subcontinent: a review of the recent literature. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 9: 153-74. 10.4314/ajtcam.v9i1.20. eCollection 2012.
Dhananjaya BL, Shivalingaiah S. 2016. The anti-inflammatory activity of standard aqueous stem bark extract of Mangifera indica L. as evident in inhibition of Group IA sPLA2. An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 88: 197-209. https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201620140574.
Dhananjaya BL, Zameer F, Girish KS, D’Souza CJ. 2011. Anti-venom potential of aqueous extract of stem bark of Mangifera indica L. against Daboia russelii (Russell’s viper) venom. Indian J. Biochem. Biophys. 48: 175-183. PMID: 21793309.
Dibong SD, Brice P, Ottou M, Vandi D, Christelle R, Tchamaha FM, et al. 2015. Ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales anti hémorroïdaires des marchés et villages du Centre et du Littoral Cameroun. J. Applied Bios. 9072 - 9093. DOI: 10.4314/jab.v96i1.5.
Dibong SD, Mpondo Mpondo E, Ngoye A, Kwin NF. 2011. Plantes médicinales utilisées par les populations bassa de la région de Douala au Cameroun. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sc. 5: 1105-1117. DOI : 10.4314/ijbcs.v5i3.72227.
Diego MA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, Gonzalez-Quintero VH. 2009. Prenatal depression restricts fetal growth. Early Hum. Dev. 85: 65-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.07.002.
Dike PI, Obembe OO, Adebiyi EF. 2012. Ethnobotanical survey for potential anti- malarial plants in South-Western Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 144: 618-626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.10.002.
Diogo LC, Fernandes RS, Marcussietal S. 2009. “Inhibition of snake venoms and phospholipases A2 by Extracts from native and genetically modified Eclipta alba: isolation of active coumestans,” Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 104: 293-299.
Doley R, Zhou X, Kini RM. 2010. Snake venom phospholipase A2 enzymes. In: Mackessy, S.P. (Ed.), Handbook of Venoms and Toxins of Reptiles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 173- 205. 1st Edition. eBook ISBN9780429186394.
Elgorashi EE, & Mcgaw LJ. 2019. South African Journal of Botany African plants with in vitro anti-inflammatory activities: A review. South Afric. J. Botany. 126: 142-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.06.034.
Emami SA, Taghizadeh Rabe SZ, Iranshahi M, Ahi A, Mahmoudi M. 2010. Sesquiterpene lactone fraction from Artemisia khorassanica in- hibits inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression through the inactivation of Nf-kB. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 32 : 688-695. https://doi.org/10.3109/08923971003677808.
Ezuruik UF, Prieto JM. 2014. The use of plants in the traditional management of diabetes in Nigeria: Pharmacological and toxicological considerations. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155: 857-924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.055.
Farnsworth NR, Akerele OB, Audrey S, Soejarto DD, Guo Z. 1985. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull. World Health Organ. 63: 965-981. PMCID: PMC2536466. PMID: 3879679.
Fomogne-Fodjo, MCY, Van Vuuren S, Ndinteh DT, Krause RWM, Olivier DK. 2014. Antibacterial activities of plants from Central Africa used traditionally by the Bakola pygmies for treating respiratory and tuberculosis-related symptoms. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155: 123-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.032.
Fongnzossie EF, Tize Z, Nde PJF, Biyegue CFN, Ntsama ISB, Dibong SD, et al. 2017. South African Journal of Botany Ethnobotany and pharmacognostic perspective of plant species used as traditional cosmetics and cosmeceuticals among the Gbaya ethnic group in Eastern Cameroon. South Afric. J. Botany. 112: 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.05.013.
Ghedadba N, Hambaba L, Aberkane MC, Oueld-Mokhtar SM, Fercha N, Bousselsela N. 2014. Évaluation de l’activité hémostatique in vitro de l’extrait aqueux des feuilles de Marrubium vulgare L. Alger. J. Nat. Products. 2: 64-74. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.556745.
Gomes A, Das R, Sarkhel S, Mishra R, Mukherjee S, Bhattacharya S. 2010. Herbs and herbal constituents active against snakebite. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 48: 865-878. PMID: 21506494.
Gomes A, Saha A, Chatterjee I, Chakravarty AK. 2007. Viper and cobra venom neutralization by ?-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from the root extract of Pluchea indica Less. (Asteraceae). Phytomedicine. 14: 637-643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2006.12.020.
Gómez-betancur I, Benjumea D, Patiño A, Jiménez N, & Osorio E. 2014. Inhibition of the toxic effects of Bothrops asper venom by pinostrobin , a flavanone isolated from Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) MAAS. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155: 1609-1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.08.002.
Harrison RA, Hargreaves A, Wagstaff SC, Faragher B, Lalloo DG. 2009. Snake Envenoming: A Disease of Poverty Snake Envenoming : A Disease of Poverty. Human Development. PLoS. Negl. Trop. Dis. 3: e569. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000569.
Haslam E. 1989. Polyphenols-vegetable tannins. In: Phillipson, J.D., Ayres, D.C., Baxter, J. (Eds.), Plant Polyphenols: Vegetable Tannins Revisited. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1-81, 154-214. DOI: 10.1002/bies.950120912.
Houngton PJ, Osibogun IM. 1993. Flowering plants used against snake bite. J. Ethnopharmacol. 39: 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(93)90047-9.
Iyamah PC, Idu M. 2015. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants used in the treatment of malaria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 173: 287-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.008.
Kabran GR, Mamyrbekova-Bekro JA, Pirat JL, Bekro YA, Sommerer N, Verbaere A, Meudec E. 2014. Identification de composés phénoliques extraits de deux plantes de la pharmacopée ivoirienne J. Soc. Ouest-Afr. Chim. 38: 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.008.
Kasturiratne A, Wickremasinghe AR, Silva N, Gunawardena NK, Pathmes-waran A, Premaratna R, Savioli L, Lalloo DG, Silva HJ. 2008. The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths. PLoS Medicine. 5: 1591-1604. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050218.
Kerharo J, Adam JG. 1974. Pharmacopée Sénégalaise Tradionnelle. Paris, (Ed.) Vigot et Frères. Pp 1011.
Kini RM. 2003. Excitement ahead: structure, function and mechanism of snake venom phospholipase A2 enzymes. Toxicon. 42: 827-840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.002.
Klayman DL. 1993. Artemisia annua: from weed to respectable antimalarial plant. In: BALANDRIN, A.D.K.A.M.F., (Ed.) Human Medicinal Agents from Plants. Washington: American Chemical Society. 242-255. DOI: 10.1021/bk-1993-0534.ch017.
Krishnan SA, Dileepkumar R, Nair AS, Oommen OV. 2014. Studies on neutralizing effect of Ophiorrhiza mungos root extract against Daboia russelii venom. J. Ethnopharmacol. 151: 143-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.010.
Kumar S, Pandey AK. 2013. Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: an overview. Sci. World J. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/162750.
Lance K, Kremen C, Raymond I. 1994. Extraction of forest Products: quantitative of a park and buffer zone and long-term monitoring. Antananarivo: Report to Park Delimitation Unit, WCS/PCDIM. 549-63.
Lang Balija M, Vrdoljak A, Habjanec L, Dojnovi? B, Halassy B, Vraneši? B, Tomaši? J. 2005. The variability of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venoms from Croatia-biochemical properties and biological activity. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 140: 257-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2005.02.008.
Lin J, Opoku AR, Geheeb-keller M, Hutchings AD. 1999. Preliminary screening of some traditional zulu medicinal plants for anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial activities. J. Ethnopharmacol. 68: 267 - 274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00130-0.
Lumpu SL, Kikueta CM, Tshodi ME, Mbenza AP, Kambu OK, Mbamua BM, Cos P, Maes L, Apers S, Pieters L, Cimanga RK. 2013. Antiprotozoal screening and cytotoxicity of extracts and fractions from the leaves, stembark and root bark of Alstonia congensis. J. Ethnopharmacol. 148: 724-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.04.016.
Machiah DK, Gowda TV. 2006. Purification of a post-synaptic neurotoxic phospholipase A2 from Naja naja venom and its inhibition by a glycoprotein from Withania somnifera. Biochimie. 88: 701-710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2005.12.006.
Mahanta M, Mukherjee AK. 2001. Neutralization of lethality, myotoxicity and toxic enzymes of Naja kaouthia venom by Mimosa pudica root extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 75: 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00373-1.
Mello JCP, Santos SC. 2001. Taninos. In: Simões, C.M., Schenkel, E. P.,Gosmann, G., Mello, J. C.P.; Mentz, L.A.; Petrovick, P.R. Farmacognosia: da planta ao medicamento. 3 ed. Porto Alegre: Ed.UFGRS/Ed.UFSC, cap. 24: 517-543.
Melo PA, Nascimento MC, Mors WB, Suarez-Kurtz G. 1994. Inhibition of the myotoxic and hemorrhagic activities of crotalid venoms by Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae) extracts and constituents. Toxicon. 32: 595-603. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(94)90207-0.
Mengome LE, Akue JP, Souza A, Tchoua RG, Eba F. 2010. In vitro activities of plant extracts on human Loa loa isolates and cytotoxicity for eukaryotic cells. Parasitol. Res. 643-650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-010-1910-2.
Molander M, Nielsen L, Sogaard S, Staerk D, Ronsted N, Diallo D, et al. 2014. Hyaluronidase, phospholipase A2 and protease inhibitory activity of plants used in traditional treatment of snakebite-induced tissue necrosis in Mali, DR Congo and South Africa. J. Ethnopharmacol. 157: 180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.027.
Mors WB, Nascimento MC, Pereira BM, Pereira NA. 2000. Plant natural products active against snake bite-the molecular approach. Phytochemistry. 55: 627- 42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00229-6.
Mors WB, DoNascimento MC, Parente JP, Da Silva MH, Melo PA, Suarez-Kurtz G. 1989. Neutralization of lethal and myotoxic activities of South Americanrattle snake venom by extracts and constituents of the plant Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae). Toxicon 27: 1003-1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(89)90151-7.
Moscatelli V, Hnatyzyn O, Acevedo C, Megias J, Alcaraz MJ, Ferraro G. 2006. Flavonoids from Artemisia copa with anti-inflammatory activity. Planta Med. 72: 72-74. DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-873177.
Moura VM, Freitas-de-Sousa LA, Dos-Santos MC, Raposo JDA, Lima AE, Oliveira RB, Silva MN, Mourão RHV. 2015. Plants used to treat snakebites in Santarém, western Pará, Brazil: an assessment of their effectiveness in inhibiting hemorrhagic activity induced by Bothrops jararaca venom. J. Ethnopharmacol. 161: 224-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.020.
Moura VM, Sousa LAF, Oliveira RB, Moura-da-Silva AM, Chalkidis HM, Silva MN, Pacheco S, Mourão RHV. 2013. Inhibition of the principal enzymatic and biological effects of the crude venom of Bothrops atrox by plant extracts. J. Med. Plant Res. 7: 2330-2337. DOI: 10.5897/JMPR2013.5148.
Mourão Valéria, Moura D, Guimarães C, Travassos L, Freitas-de-sousa LA, Sousa JD, et al. 2018. Assessment of the anti-snakebite properties of extracts of Aniba fragrans Ducke (Lauraceae) used in folk medicine as complementary treatment in cases of envenomation by Bothrops atrox. J. Ethnopharmacol. 213: 350-358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.11.027.
Mpondo Mpondo E, Dibong SD, Ladoh YCF, Priso RJ, Ngoye A. 2012. Les plantes à phénols utilisées par les populations de la ville de Douala. J. Animal and Plant Sciences. 15: 2083-2098. http://www.m.elewa.org/JAPS; ISSN 2071-7024.
N’Guessan K, Kadja B, Zirihi G, Traoré D, Aké-assi L. 2009. Screening phytochimique de quelques plantes médicinales ivoiriennes utilisées en pays Krobou (Agboville, Côte-d’Ivoire). Sciences & Nature. 6: 1-15. DOI: 10.4314/scinat.v6i1.48575.
Nalbantsoy A, Erel SB, Köksal Ç, Göçmen B, Yava?o?lu N Ü K. 2013. Viper venom induced inflammation with Montivipera xanthina (Gray, 1849) and the anti-snake venom activities of Artemisia absinthium L. in rat. Toxicon. 65: 34-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.12.017.
Nanda BL, Nataraju A, Rajesh R, Rangappa KS, Shekar MA, Vishwanath BS. 2007. PLA2 mediated arachidonate free radicals: PLA2 inhibition and neutralization of free radicals by anti-oxidants-a new role as anti-inflammatory molecule. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 7: 765-777. DOI : 10.2174/156802607780487623.
Ndah NR, Egbe EA, Bechem E, Asaha S, Yengo T, Chia EL, et al. 2013. Ethnobotanical study of commonly used medicinal plants of The Takamanda Rainforest South West, Cameroon. Afric. J. Plant Sc. 7: 21-34. DOI:10.5897/AJPS12.111.
Ndenecho EN. 2009. NGO Input and Stakeholder Participation in Natural Resource Management: Example of North West Cameroon. Internat. NGO J. 4: 50-56. http:// www.academicjournals.org/INGOJ ISSN 1993-8225.
Neuwinger HD. 2000. African Traditional Medicine. Medpharm Scientific Publisher, Stuttgart, 589 pp.,+46 pp. supplement, hardcover. ISBN 3-88763-086-6.
Ngene JP, Ngoule CC, Kidik Pouka CM, Mvogo Ottou PB, Ndjib RC, Dibong SD, Mpondo Mpondo E. 2015. Importance dans la pharmacopée traditionnelle des plantes à flavonoïdes vendues dans les marchés de Douala Est (Cameroun). J. Applied Bios. 88: 8194-8210. DOI: 10.4314/jab.v88i1.6.
Okonogi T, Hattori Z, Ogiso A, Mitsui S. 1979. Detoxification by persimmon tannin of snake venoms and bacterial toxins. Toxicon.17: 524-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(79)90287-3.
Okuda T, Yoshida T, Hatano T. 1991. Chemistry and biological activ- ity of tannins in medicinal plants. In: Wagner, H., Farnsworth, N.R. (Eds.), Economic and Medicinal Plant Research, vol. 5. Academic Press, London. 129-165.
Otero R, Gutiérrez J, Beatriz MM, Duque E, Rodr?guez O, Luis AJ, Gómez F, Toro A, Cano F, Maria RL, Caro E, Martinez J, Cornejo W, Mariano Gómez L, Luis Uribe F, Cárdenas S, Nunes V, Diaz A. 2002. Complications of Bothrops, Porthidium, and Bothriechis snakebites in Colombia. A clinical and epidemiological study of 39 cases attended in a university hospital. Toxicon. 40: 1107-1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00104-6.
Otero-Patiño R, Segura A, Herrera M, Angulo Y, León G, Gutiérrez JM, Barona J, Estrada S. 2012. Comparative study of the efficacy and safety of two polyvalent, caprylic acid fractionated [IgG and F(ab0) antivenoms, in Bothrops asper bites in Colombia. Toxicon. 59: 344-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.11.017.
Patiño AC, López J, Aristizábal M, Quintana JC. 2012. Evaluation of the inhibitory effect of extracts from leaves of Renealmia alpinia Rottb. Maas (Zingiberaceae) on the venom of Bothrops asper (mapaná). Biomédica. 32: 365-374. PMID: 23715185 DOI: 10.1590/S0120-41572012000300007
Pithayanukul P, Ruenraroengsak P, Bavovada R, Pakmanee N, Suttisri R, Saen- oon S. 2005. Inhibition of Naja kaouthia venom activities by plant polyphenols. J. Ethnopharmacol. 97: 527-533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.013.
Pompermaier L, Marzocco S, Adesso S, Monizi M, Schwaiger S, Neinhuis C, Stuppner H, Lautenschläger T. 2018. Medicinal plants of northern Angola and their anti-inflammatory properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 216: 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.01.019.
Prinsloo G, Marokane CK, Street RA. 2018. Anti-HIV activity of southern African plants: Current developments, phytochemistry and future research. J Ethnopharmacol. 210 : 133-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.08.005.
Prohp TP, Onoagbe IO. 2012. Determination of phytochemical composition of the stem bark of Triplochiton scleroxylon k. schum. (sterculiaceae). Internat. J. Applied Biol. Pharm. Technonl. 3: 68-76. Corpus ID: 73897531.
Razi MT, Asad MHHB, Khan T, Chaudhary MZ, Ansari MT, Arshad AM, Saqib QN. 2011. Anti-haemorrhagic potentials of Fagonia cretica against Naja naja karachiensis (black Pakistan cobra) venom. Nat. Product Res. 25, 1902-1907. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.490785.
Ribereau-Gayon P. 1972. The tannins. In: Heywood, V.H. (Ed.), Plant Phenolics. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh. 169-197.
Roersch CMFB. 2010. Piper umbellatum L .: A comparative cross-cultural analysis of its medicinal uses and an ethnopharmacological evaluation. J. Ethnopharmacol. 131: 522-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.045.
Ruikar AD, Misar AV, Jadhav RB, Rojatkar SR, Mujumdar AM, Puranik VG, Deshpande NR. 2011. Sesquiterpene lactone, a potent drug molecule from Artemisia pallens wall with anti-inflammatory activity. Arzneimittelforschung. 61: 510-514. DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1296236.
Samy RPMM, Thwin P, Gopalakrishnakone S. 2008. Ignacimuthu, Ethnobotanical survey of folk plants for the treatment of snakebites in Southern part of Tamilnadu, India. J. Ethanopharmacol. 115: 302-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.10.006.
Santos CB, Bernardino GZ, Soares FJ, Espindola JD, Arruda PMR, Paula JR, Conceição EC, Bara MTF. 2014. Preparation and characterization of tinctures of green tea leaves [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] Theaceae. Braz. J. Med. Plants. 16: 826-831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1983-084X/10_063.
Sawai Y. 1980. Studies on snakebites in the Asian areas. In: Eaker, D., Wadstrom, T. (Eds.), Natural Toxins. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 25-32.
Sereme A, Millogo-rasolodimby J, Guinko S, Nacro M. 2008. Propriétés thérapeutiques des plantes à tanins du Burkina Faso. Pharmacopée et Médecine traditionnelle Africaines. 15, 41-49.
Shabbir A, Shahzad M, Masci P, Gobe GC. 2014. Protective activity of medicinal plants and their isolated compounds against the toxic effects from the venom of Naja (cobra) species. J. Ethnopharmacol. 157: 222-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.039.
Silva TP, Moura VM, Souza MCS, Santos VNC, Silva KAMM, Mendes MGG, Nunez CV, Almeida PDO, Lima ES, Mourão RHV, Dos-Santos MC. 2016. Connarus favosus Planch.: na inhibitory of the hemorrhagic activity of Bothrops atrox venom and a potential antioxidant and antibacterial agent. J. Ethnopharmacol. 183: 166-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.043.
Singh F, Zoll J, Duthaler U, Charles AL, Panajatovic MV, Laverny G, Mc Williams TG, Metzger D, Geny B, Krähenbühl S, Bouitbir J. 2018. PGC-1? modulates statin-associated myotoxicity in mice. Arch Toxicol. 93: 487-504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-018-2369-7.
Springer DM. 2001. An update of inhibitors of human 14 kDa type II s-PLA2 in development. Curr. Pharm. Des. 7: 181-198. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612013398275.
Suffness M, Wall ME. 1995. Discovery and development of taxol. Suffness, M. (ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1-25 in Taxol: Science and Applications.
Tan NH, Fung SY, Sim SM, Marinello E, Guerranti R, Aguiyi JC. 2009. The protective effect of Mucuna pruriens seeds against snake venom poisoning. J Ethnopharmacol. 123: 356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.025.
World Health Organization/WHO. 2017. Disponível em: http://www.who.int/ neglected_diseases/diseases/en/ (Accessed 15 June 2017).
Yin Y, Gong FY, Wu XX, Sun Y, Li YH, Chen T, Xu Q. 2008. Anti- inflammatory and immunosuppressive effect of flavones isolated from Artemisia vestita. J. Ethnopharmacol. 120: 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.029.